Order and prosperity in Korea increased during Japanese annexation

http://www5b.biglobe.ne.jp/~korea-su/korea-su/e.korea/korea-problem/japan%20ruied.html

Order and prosperity in Korea
increased during Japanese annexation
In the Cairo Declaration of 1943, the Allied Nations claim that "they will liberate enslaved Korea and regain its independence." Today, a considerable number of South and North Koreans are still claiming for more formal apologies and compensation from Japan. Their claims are based on false accusations that Japan's annexation of the Korean Peninsula brought enslavement and exploitation of the Korean people. One wonders whether this is true; Were the Koreans treated so cruelly??? How did the Japanese treat the Korean people?

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We will certify as follows;

1: Civil rights in Korea: who climbed the social ladder?
2: Rice export to Japan and famine in Korea.
3: The Lies of Forced Labor.
4: Enthusiastic Korean volunteers to become Japanese soldiers.
5: Financial Assistance by Japan to Korea.
6: Labor exploitation sustained .
7: Conclusion: Japanese Exploitation was an illusion

1: Civil rights in Korea: who climbed the social ladder?

When Japan annexed Korea in 1910, Japan admitted Korean royals as members of the Japanese imperial family. Those who had contributed to the annexation were integrated into the nobility, and were given appropriate titles. I Wangyong, the last Korean prime minister, was given the title of the Count (later Duke). Seventy-five other Koreans were titled from Count to Baron. At the same time, seven Japanese and six Koreans were each appointed to be state governors of Korea's thirteen states. In 1924, a Korean was commissioned to be the Director of Education of the Government General in Souel.

What surprises us here are Hong Sayang, who was Lieutenant General of Japanese Imperial Army, and Park Sungkong, a member of House of Representatives in Tokyo. A seat in the House of Representatives was an elective post. Park Sungkong was elected twice from his district in Tokyo. This is concrete evidence that there was no discrimination just because one was a Korean. Male residents of Korea, whether Korean or Japanese, had no voting rights nor eligibility for parliamentary office. Reversely, male residents of the Japanese mainland, whether Korean or Japanese, had both voting rights and the rights to participate in national politics. In 1945, the election law was amended and eighteen seats to be elected from Korea were allotted for the next election, but the plan never crystallized due to Japan's defeat in World War 2. For the House of Peers, several Koreans were appointed, beginning with Park Yong Hyo in 1932.

Thus, war propaganda generated the false image that Koreans were treated like slaves. In addition, we proudly point out that Japan produced Korean officers who had command over the Japanese soldiers. Yes, Britain, France, The United States and the Netherland respectively produced Indian, Vietnamese, Filipino and Indonesian officers. But were any of those colonized country's officers actually permitted to command the native rank-and-file of colonial masters?

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2: Rice export to Japan and Famine in Korea

The current nationally-designated textbook for Korean high schools shows a table of rice production in Korea and rice export to Japan. The textbook makes the accusation that "Koreans were unable to eat rice due to exploitation of rice export to Japan, the increase in the amount of which far exceeded the increase in Korean domestic rice production".

Korean rice production and rice exports to Japan(unit: one thousand Koku, 1Koku≒180 littles)
year
1920 1922 1924 1926 1928 1930 1932 1933
quantity of production 12,700 14,320 15,170 14,970 17,300 13,700 15,900 16,300
quantity of export 1850 3,400 4,750 5,440 7,420 5,400 7,600 8,700
The figuares are true, and it is also true that Korean farmers suffered much in living. However it should also be noted that farmers in the northern part of Japan had an equally hard time as their counterparts in Korea.

At this time, rice was under a freely traded commodity, and there was no governmental control over its trade.
The late 1920's is infamous for world economic depression. From 1925 to 1931, the price of rice dropped down to one third in Japan. The Ministry of Farming and Forestry proclaimed that this drop in rice prices was due to the vast imports of Korean rice, and that the rice imports from Korea and Taiwan should be barred in order to protect the Japanese farmers. The Korean Government General demanded, with the back-up of the Japanese Imperial Army, that Korean farmers should be protected, since they gained income from rice export to Japan, and managed to bar Japan's import control efforts. Tadaatsu Ishiguro, the Vice minister of the Ministry of Farming and Forestry resigned, to protest against interference by the Korean Government General.
In other words, in the early 1920's Japan was short of rice and there was a social disorder resulted from the rice shortage. She was therefor eager to import from Korea and Taiwan. However by late 1920's, the infrastructure for mass-production of rice was completed in all three areas, and both Japanese and Korean people faced excess in rice production. Unfortunately, Korea had no cash produce for export except rice, with which to buy living necessities.
Around the same time, the United States encountered the trade conflict with the Philippines regarding the import of sugar and palm oil, coupled with the labor dispute against the US labor unions regarding the immense Filipino immigrants. In 1935, the US Government approved the local governed for the Philippines to determine political independence from the United States ten years later. The United States then substituted its Supreme
Governor with High Commissioner who possessed the veto right. It looks as the Philippines obtained its substantial independence, when in reality the United States actually forsook the Philippines. It is said in Japan that a certain number of the Japanese Diet representatives expressed an opinion to cut of Korea, similar to what the United States did to the Philippines.

In summary, the United States treated the Philippines as their colony and therefore gave Filipinos a local government and finally independence, with the strict interpretation that the people of the United States were different from those of the Philippines and so was the relationship between the two countries. On the contrary, Japan annexed Korea to blend into one country and governed thus. This clear apprehension of difference created the vast amount of Japanese investment in Korea to accelerate the industrialization.

Concretely, Japan initiated, with an ample subsidy brought from the Mainland Japan, land reclamation in the Yellow Sea (So-he in Korean), farming exploration in the difficult areas, irrigation scale-up. Such development plan, however, did not proceed as planned in the kick-off stage because of the economic inflation and the budget shortage. Since then, the newly modified plan was smoothly promoted in 1925 but encountered with the economic deflation, making many number of their irrigation unions bankrupted and Koreans denouncing Japanese policy. Japan had to select and divide those unions into two categories with the one to dissolve and the other to relieve by abandoning or reducing the interest of the fund borrowed by them. Those farmers who could not overcome this critical situation lost their own land but those farmers who were able to pass this hard tide caught the great deal of wealthy to return. The Korean population increased double because of the hygienic improvement under the Japanese ruling, whose expansion surpassed the growth speed of farming land exploration and inevitably let Korean flow into Japan and Manchuria.


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3: The Lies of Forced Labor

In 1939 when the undeclared Sino-Japanese war broke out, the compulsory labor to the military factories had begun, while in Korea the labor force was richly available so that the second and third sons of the Korean peasant families were unemployed due to their natural population increase, trying to get the jobs in the mainland Japan. They were, however, restricted to move there because of the reason that their immigration to Japan would inevitably deprive jobs from Japanese laborers. The private firms in the mainland Japan were also prohibited to recruit those Korean workers. Thus, in the year of 1939, such restriction was abandoned and the
Japanese enterprises could recruit those Korean youths.

In 1942 when the demand for labor increased, the national job-introduction system was materialized, which was said substantially the compulsory job-ration system. But from the legal point of view, it was only the job-introduction system where the unemployed could apply for the jobs at their free wills with no penalty for their sabotage or run-away from the works as long as its monetary compensation was settled. It was in 1944 when World War 2 was getting over that the job rationing system for Korean young men was carried out while Japanese youths were forced to join the Imperial military forces. Generally speaking, these two types of labor, the national job-introduction and the job-rationing systems were called the forced labor system, but the reality at that time was that those Korean young men were ordered to report to the municipal offices and guided in groups to the working places by the municipal officials just like the Japanese young men were ordered to report to join the army and the navy. Those Koreans were never hand-cuffed nor kidnapped to the laboring sites. The exploitation at the mines and the civil construction work was not mechanized at that time, requiring tremendous volume of human powers with such sweat and agony as was unforgettably raged by the Koreans.

In this regard, the dispute of the unpaid per-diem to those Korean laborers has been an social controversy for
long time, the cause of which was that those Koreans left their duty places without the official permission and went home back to their home land. Hence, the firms who employed them have deposited the their wages to the
Japanese law-Agency pursuant to the guidance by the Ministry of Welfare. At the time when the Basic Treaty between South Korea and Japan was executed, the amount of such wages was paid to the Japanese Treasury and then became a part of the Economy Fund to the South Korean Government. The Issue of the Korean comfort women will be discussed later. In the mean time, we suggest the readers to ABC of Modern Japanese History for your reference.

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4: Enthusiastic Korean volunteers to become Japanese soldiers.

At the break of the Sino-Japanese military conflict in 1937, the Japanese army troops rushed to the war-front by trains through the Korean Peninsula, en route, the Japanese soldiers were welcomed with hearty hails by both Japanese and Koreans alike, together with gratuity presents. Each station en route was, in many nights thundered with cheerful hails by the clouds, where the Korean civilians accompanying the military trains as an
interpreter were seen off by their family members with tears and laughing.

At that time, Major Kim Sakwong (He is Korean) of the Japanese Imperial Army completely destroyed the Chinese division by commanding one regiment of one thousand Japanese soldiers, and was awarded with the gold medal of third grade, as the first instance of the Korean officer, which was rarely conferred to any alive soldier. This victory was reported in giant head-lined throughout Korea and later published in books with titles of "Diary of Maj. Kim" and "Brave stories in the War-Front" It was almost like a dream for many Koreans that a native Korean became an officer of the Japanese Imperial Army and attacked the Chinese army, leading Japanese soldiers. People cheered and waved the flags for the Japanese troops sent for China and the success story of Maj. Kim, wound up the Koreans ethos to acquire pride and confidence, generating the inter-fraternity between the Japanese and the Korean. Tibon Yung, Nationalist and Choi Lim, Leader of Korean Christianity performed a war-victory ceremony at Choson Shrine to surprise the high officials of the Korea High Commission.

Under the circumstances, over three thousand Korean youths applied for the recruiting test performed in 1938 to volunteer for the Japanese Imperial Army, whereas the limit was four hundred. The number of the Korean
applicants increased year by year to reach, in 1942, sixty-two times more than the limit. At last, the number of such applicants in 1943 marked 300,000 Koreans in total to cover the majority of the Korean young men in
eighteen to twenty-two years old, out of the total Korean population of 2,4000,000. This is an unbelievable truth to both Korean and Japanese youths of today.

Kyoung Nok Choi, former Korean ambassador to Japan, was one of the volunteers. Even though he was admitted to the Japanese Imperial Army Academy, he left for the New Guinea front together with the regiment to which he belonged, saying "I fear I may lose the chance to serve the Country if I stayed in school too long." There is no doubt that there were a certain number of Koreans who was not willing to serve for Japan, nevertheless, there were also a great number of Koreans who volunteered for the Japanese military. Thus, the military service obligation for the Korean males became compulsory in 1944. To draft Korean nationals, it is impossible unless to trust their loyalty; in their anti-Japanese mood, one must wonder which ways their guns will be pointed.

The Korean leaders agitated their young men to rise for Japan. For your reference, we quote the speech by Yoeng Han Jue (later became a Diet member of South Korea) titled "Answer me, Roosevelt": Mr. Roosevelt, a pyromaniac in the world wearing fake-mask of justice and working for intrigue and exploitation, you always open your mouth by advocating Justice and human rights. Do you remember what you have done? When Japan insisted imposing, at the Peace Treaty Conference held at Paris after World War I, the abandon of the racial prejudice for the Oriental and Negro people. Who were and what countries were against Japan's motion and turned down the same. Who did or what countries did discriminate Orient people and Negroes and let them sit at different seat? Now, your luck is gone. As well as the Japanese of 100 million people, we Korean of 2.4 million will vow to be a brave soldier for the sacred war of Great Asia." The Korean leaders appealed for Korean young men unitedly such Apartheid.

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5: Financial Assistance by Japan to Korea.

The Korean national budget in 1911 just after the Korean annexation by Japan, was \ 52 million yen in revenue, containing the Japanese subsidy 12 million yen and the public loan 10 million yen revealing that the Korean Economy would have bankrupted without such financial token from Japan. The ratio of these Japanese aids decreased year by year but it existed until 1945. The total volume of the Japanese assets left in Korea when Japan lost war, was measured in many ways and certified. On the other hand, The General Head Quarter of the allied nations calculated such assets to be worth 5,200 million dollars (then worth \ 79 billion yen at 15 yen/dollar). It's value of this time is 80 trillion yen, conversion by ratio of national budget.

The personal income tax system was introduced in 1934, which taxation ratio was one half of the Japanese then ratio, for its spread taxation ratio was decreased to be less percentage. The liquor tax was less than that of Mainland Japan. These facts makes us believe that no economical exploitation was ever performed in Korea under the Japanese governance.

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6: Labor exploitation sustained

In Marxist economics, the capitalists exploit the laborers who were compelled to work hard, and severely did so in the colonized nations; this thesis has become a common sense among the Japanese left-wings. The labor statistics reveal that the wage rate of Korean workers was between 50% to 70% of its Japanese counterparts, or 50% to 60% in 1910's and in 1930's when Japan was in depression, by 60% to 70% in 1920's and end of 1930's when it was in high time. These wage increase trend for Korean laborers did not fall thereafter.

However, it is denounced as exploitation, due to the fact that the wages were lower than Japan, without considering the difference of the productivity then prevailing between Japan and Korea. The statistics in the coal mine shows that the Japanese production volume per man was 160 MT whereas the Korean
output was 100 MT only, to have met with the wage spread in between. How do they criticize the current status of Korean companies which have invested in South Asia? Their aim was to utilize the cheap labor cost paid to such regional people by the Korean labor-intensive Industries. Do they criticize this phenomenon as an economic exploitation? No, Never. Why not? Contrary to the above fact, These Asian nations have welcomed foreign investments, instead of denouncing as such, viewing that such investment would surely take-off their national economy; so was the Japanese investment into Korea. What is on earth difference between the Korean capitals landing to the south undeveloped countries after World War II and the Japanese capitals landing to Korea before World War II?

To our surprise, the same amount of salaries was paid not only to the commissioned high officials of Japanese but also to those of Korean natives. That is to say, the salary table was the same with no racial discrimination. Needless to say, the special pay-incentives for overseas service was promised for the Japanese officials as seen in the current business and diplomatic world including such incentives. The volume of such incentives was so intensive to mark fifty percent up against its rate-salary, that the bright and competent officials should be recruited for the overseas services of Korea where the living standards were quite different and far behind from Japan. In 1944 and onwards, the salary system was improved to witness that the Korean officials received the same incentives paid to the Japanese officials in his Korean service. In other words, Korean officials working in Korea received the salary and incentives but Japanese officials working in Japan received only salary not incentives. Without Japan, what other country, or what other white races belonging to the Western Powers, has ever committed and performed Such equal and non-discriminating policy?

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7.Conclusion: Japanese exploitation was an illusion.

There are many people who simply think that Japan exploited Korea so much, basing on the various kinds of media who wrongly and mistakenly reported. Those media holler that Japan robbed the minerals and lumbers from Korea; these materials are valueless as long as being left unexplored and lumbers are reproductive.

Nowadays, the underdeveloped countries have invited the industrial investment from the developed countries like G-Seven giants with their financial aid and technical know-how. Nobody of those developing nations ever cites that those economic giants are exploiting them of anything. Is there any diversity or difference between these economical actions and the Japanese enterprising at Korea after the annexation instead of colonization? The Japanese firms invested the money and introduced their technology to Korea, and re-invested their profits again without transferring their net proceedings back to Japan. They taught and cultivated those Korean man-powers who could operate the Korean factories and manage to run the firms after the Korean War, regardless the public sectors or private.

The GDP of South Korea until 1960 could not catch up with that of Japan, and the economical gap in GDP between the two countries was actually enlarged in reverse. This fact proves that Japan did not exploit Korea, and that the Japanese exploitation over Korea was an illusion. The Korean industrial revolution initiated by Governor-General Kazushige Ugaki, commenced smoothly with the regular economic growth in 1930 years until 1941, during the period which the spirit between the Japanese and Koreans greatly homogenized.

Im Choi, one of the 3.1 anti-Japan movement leaders proclaimed on the Mei-Il newspaper on December 10, 1941, two days after Japan raided on Pearl Harbor: "How long did we wait for this day.------- we have produced our surname, volunteered to be one of the Imperial soldiers, and become Imperial nationals. From now on, we will have to train ourselves physically and play the role of a shield with our all might". Such slogan was energetically publicized in the propaganda "Knock out America and Britain" and Korea was never under the enslaved condition.


Soushi-Kaimei
So-Shi (to establish the surname-Shi )
Kai-Mei (to change the second name-Mei)
February 11, 1940 was National Founding Day of 2600 in Imperial era. On this auspicious day, the revision of the civil law in Korea and Taiwan was done. In this revision, the people in Korea and Taiwan might exchange their name to Japanese-style if they want, It is called So-Shi (to establish the surname-Shi ) Kai-Mei (to change the second name-Mei) in Korea and Kai-Sei-Mei ( to change the surname-Sei and the second name-Mei) in Taiwan. Sei and Shi mean "surname" in Japan, and Japanese use them as same meaning. Mei means "second name".

Why was it Sou-Shi （to establish the surname-Shi ) instead of Kai-Sei（change the surname-Sei) in Korea? Because this difference can not be understood, this system is misunderstood very much and reputation is very bad in both Korea and Japan.

The reason is that the meaning of surname is quite different from Japan to Korea. Japanese surname is a name of a family, and a couple has the same surname. Therefore, when they marry, either man or woman changes his or her surname. The surname of Korean is the tribal name of the father and can not change throughout the life. The marriage of man and woman who belong the same tribe and have the same surname, can not be forgiven by the law. This item was left by this revision of Korea civil law of 1940.

By this item, when the couple will marriage, they had to confirm the surname of a partner. Therefore, even if people will change their surname to Japanese-style, they must leave their surname of Korea type in the census register. Therefore Governor official defined Japanese-type surname as "Shi" and Korean-type surname as "Sei", and solved this problem. Namely, people must use Japanese-style surname formally, and Governor official left the surname of Korea-type in the census register. Therefore, it was Soshi (to establish the surname-Shi ).

The surname for a married couple in Taiwan is basically a separate , but the marriage of man and woman who have the same surname is forgiven. Therefore, there is no problem that the couple has same surname and to change the surname, . After the war, North Korea forgave marriage of man and woman who have the same surname of Korea-type. Japan was criticized that they deprived Sei (the surname of Korea-type) from a Korean, but they established a system of Japanese-type surname-Shi to keep Sei (the surname of Korea-type).

A notice to establish the surname-Shi was in 6 months and when there was not a notice, the surname-Shi was decided the same as Korean-type surname-Sei of the head of a household. Then Shi (Japanese-style surname") of a wife became the same as Shi (Japanese-style surname) of her husband, but her Sei ( Korea-style surname) did not change. The family who established Shi(Japanese-style surname) was called 80%, but it was 100% precisely. The families who send the notice in a time limit were 80%.

In addition, it was permission system in Taiwan, and families who were admitted a change of the surname, did not reach 2%. It was under the China incident in those days. So the Governor-General of Taiwan made examination severe, because it would become hard to distinguish a Japanese or a Taiwanese. On the other hand, the Governor-General of Korea recommended to establish Shi(Japanese-style surname). Because it was the first step to make a same appearance of a Japanese and a Korean, to unify Japan and Korea.

I feel mysterious, because Taiwanese criticized Japan a little, and Korean criticized hard, as a result.

The American governance of the Philippines

Contents
Historical summary
Land and Agricultural Policy
Maintenance of the Infrastructure
Industrial Development
Issues On Education
Anti-government movement
Issues of uncivilized people
Conclusion

Historical summary

The Philippines became Spanish colony in the early sixteenth century. In 1898, when the Spanish-American war started, the United States called on Aguinaldo, the independence leader for the Philippines, exile in Hong Kong, to take arms to fight along with the United States. However as the Spanish army surrendered, the US commander showed sympathy to the Spanish commander who could not bear to surrender to the savages, and excluded the Filipino army. The Filipino army was not allowed into the Manila castle. Moreover, they were refused to take a part in the peace conference in Paris. As a result, a three-year long independence war started.

On the other hand, the Philippines were sold to the United States for twenty million dollars as determined in the Paris peace conference in December, 1898. The official American governance began in April of 1899, four years after the Japanese possession of Taiwan and eleven years before the annexation of Korea.

The American governance of the Philippines began with the battle against the army led by Aguinaldo. Three military administrators were appointed until the civil government was established in July, 1901. The last military administrator was Arthur MacArthur, whose son was the commander of the Allied Forces in Japan, Douglas MacArthur. President McKinley has given several instructions on the basic policies. One of them was an emphasis on education, based on the principle "Education is the greatest weapon," six hundred some teachers were brought in from the United States and the elementary education was given for free. Moreover, the United States appointed their vice-governor-generals also as the secretaries of education, emphasizing the education of the natives. This attitude of emphasizing on education was equally great to that of Japan, among the many colonial nations.

Another instruction of McKinley was about local governments. He instructed: "We would allow city governments the maximum self-governing, as we organize from small to big, as we go from cities to statehood." On this instructin, officials of local governments were appointed among Filipinos.

In the judiciary system, the native laws were respected, as long as it did not infringe the military rule. The grand jury was established in May, 1900 and six out of nine justices were Filipinos. A later, the American justices were appointed only one person than Filipino justices. Safety in the towns was quickly regained through these appeasement policies,and the revolutionary army was almost suppressed three years later. But it was 1906 that the revolutionary armies were completely surpressed. It was the eight years after　since the opening of the war with a revolutionary army. Compared to Taiwan, which took seven years, it was well-done.

The government moved toward civilian control in 1901. The first governor-general of the Philippines was Taft, who later became the president of the United States. As a member of the Philippine committee which was the highest organization of a legislation, 4 Americans and 3 Filipinos were appointed.

State governments were composed of governor, prosecutor, secretary, financial commissioner, and director. At first the Philippine committee apointed Americans as financial commissioner, and director, and Filipinos as prosecutor and secretary. Also according to the city and village act passed around this time, the mayors and all the council members were to be elected through the election.

Taft despised the fact that churches and monasteries owned a huge amount of land and literally controlling the farmers. He negotiated with Spain and bought those land for seven million dollars. Simultaneously he passed a landlord act, and prohibited American capitals to own a great deal of land. In 1906, he resumed the construction of railroad, which had been interrupted because of the war, and in 1908, established the University of the Philippines. It was before the Japanese annexation of Korea.

The congress of the Philippines was established in 1907, and state governors were to be elected by direct referendum, and instead of directors, state committees were to be elected into public offices through direct referendum. As seen here, the Filipino politics has greatly involved the Filipinos since the beginning.

In comparison, Masatake Terauchi, the first governor-general of Korea, appointed Koreans for six out of thirteen governor positions, selected Koreans for chiefs of villages, but freedom of media, and assembly was not guaranteed, and ordered Isshinkai, who contributed greatly to the annexation of Korea, to disband. There never was an equivalent to council at any level of the government. Japanese government established the House of counselors with the establishment of a governor-general's office. In this organization, all the others were influential Koreans except chairman, chief secretary, and a few secretaries. However, this organization was only to answer questions, and investigate old customs.

As Wilson, who is famous for the self-determination of people, had been elected as the president in 1912, and Haliman was appointed as the governor-general. The positions as high-rank officials, which had been given mainly to the Americans, were given to the Filipinos. Out of nine members of the Committee of the Philippines, five were Filipinos and they were also nominated for high-rank officers. At the same time six hundred American government officials who felt uncomfortable about working under the natives had returned home.

In 1916, the Jones Act was passed and the future independence was insured. The Filipino congress became bicameral and the suffrage was granted to all the men who were twenty-one years or older. The localization of the Filipino government has advanced. Although there were some commotion under the Republican administration, but there was no difference in the entire flow. The ordinary election started in Japan in 1925, thus the Philippines got started earlier. Also this act allowed the Philippines to send a two-member delegation to the United States Congress.

Would Americans enthusiastically continue investing to a place where it will soon to be a separate nation? The American investment in the Philippines has decreased drastically around this time. On the contrary, Japanese investment in Korea had a goal of one day becoming one nation, and that has built a basis for the modern nation of Korea as we see today.

In 1919, inspired by Wilson's self-determination of people, an immense anti-government movement called the 3.1 movement took place in Korea. Governor-general Makoto Saito who was in charge to settle the matter took more generous policy than his predecessor, and executed a large scale modification in the local government system twice in 1920 and in 1930. However it was far from that of the Philippines; there was no establishment of Korean parliament nor Korean participation in the national politics.

The Philippines, by the Tyding-MacDuffy act of 1934, was assured its independence by 1946, and the commonwealth was inaugurated. The American representative had transferred from governor-general to high commissioner who had a right to veto, and the local politics was entrusted to the Filipino government. Quezon won the presidential election, and elected to be the first president. This independence was in response to the demand of the Filipinos but there also was a strong demand from the Americans, as well. The world was in a great depression. Importing tariff-free, and unlimited sugar and coconut oil into the United States was a great blow to the farmers in the United States and those who invested in Cuba. Also the workers who lost their jobs to the Filipino immigrants demanded to cut off the Philippines.

However, Kazushige Ugaki, who was appointed as the governor-general of Korea in 1931, protected the profit of Korean farmers by refusing the demand from the ministry of agriculture and forestry, that wanted to stop the Korean rice from being exported to Japan. He simultaneously started a movement to stimulate agriculture, and using the incentive wages for gold mines as a trigger to start an industrial revolution in Korea and has built the fundamentals of the contemporary development in Korea. Korean mass media, from this time onward, praised Japan and became the choir for the unification of Japan and Korea.

As seen here, the Filipino politics has gradually been entrusted to the hands of the Filipinos but they were not allowed to participate in the American politics. On the other hand in Korea, the suffrage was not allowed to the residents in Korea, including the Japanese but to those who lived in Japan were allowed to participate in politics, both Koreans and Japanese alike. In 1932, Pak Yong Hyo was nominated into the House of Lords, and in 1932 and 1937, Park Shung Kong was elected twice into the House of Commons from the Tokyo district. Moreover seven Koreans were nominated into the House of Lords in 1945 and eighteen seats were given in the House of Commons from Korea in the next general election - though this never crystallized because the war ended prior.

At the begining of anexation of Korea, Japan was negative that Koreans participate in politics, but turned graduallyly to admit.

T O P

Land and Agricultural Policy

What concerns us the most in colonial rules is the exploitation of the land by the farmers of the suzerain state. In this issue, the United States prohibited even the Americans from owning a huge amount of land. However, the ownership of up to 1024 hectares of land was allowed - such ownership would be considered landlord in Japan. However it was too small to maintain the irrigation system and manage a large farm in a rational manner. Therefore those in sugar business chose to purchase from or invest in those farms run by the Filipinos rather than running their own farms.

Also, those U.S. soldiers who settled in Mindanao, an uncivilized island (the idea was advocated by Wood, who at the time was a commander of the army and later became the governor-general), were not ale to procure labor as smoothly as they wanted to, and withdrew gradually from the island and by 1914, they pulled out of the island almost completely.

Therefore the trouble between the natives and agricultural immigrants was small in numbers. On the same token only a small advancement in the agricultural technology was seen and the amount of rice obtained per acre was about a half of that of Taiwan and Korea. Also, even though the climate was temperate for growing two crops a year, the ratio between the first season and the second season remained less than ten percent. On the comparison, the rice fields throughout Taiwan almost always raised two crops a year and often raised three a year.

In Taiwan, a large irrigation system of Ka-nan-tai-shu was built and changed a large area between Taichung and Tainan into a large producting district of rice. This huge irrigation which is immune to flood, connects Ri-yue-tan, a natural lake, of north and Shanhu-tan, a man-made lake, of south, with network of aqueducts. The aqueducts altogether extend up to 6800 km, longer than the radius of the earth. Even in Korea, as part of the plan to increase the amount of rice, they invested in land reclamation of the Yellow Sea and invested largely in the maintenance of the irrigation system. There was no large scale infrastructure maintenance such as these in the Philippines.

In Taiwan, Japanese immigrants settled in the uncivilized land on the east coast and there was almost no friction with the natives.

On the other hand, a positive immigration to Korea was planned since it is closer to Japan, its climate being similar to that of Japan. And the Korean agricultural industry was immature, so there was a lot of room for further development. Japanese government negotiated with the Korean royalty to provide them with the land, establish joint enterprize,Toyo Takushoku Corporation in 1908 and solicited immigrants from Japan. Also in the private sector, there was a large number of those who purchased land and migrate into Korea. Duke Hosokawa, ancestor of the former prime minister Hosokawa, was one of them.

What proves to be a failure was the research on land. Research on land means to make clear an area of land, an owner, the use situation, and to impose fair tax, and to make an appropriate use plan. Then the courts passed a judgment over the pending land between Korean royalty and the farmers as the land owned by the Korean royalty. Then Korean royalty had disposed to the Japanese farmers. These things caused friction between the Japanese and the Korean farmers, and bred hatred among them; it also was one of the factors that led to the 3.1 movement. Also on the Korean history textbooks it says that Japan exploited more than forty percent of the arable land by the land research but this is clearly wrong; it was merely about three percent. Govenor-general Terauchi came to realize the problems with these exploitation in 1913, and asked for renouncement over reception of land from the Korean farmers. By this, it brought an end to the immigration of Japanese farmers. In the peak-era, the Japanese farmers numbers to be 10,000 and owned 250,000 hectares of land, counting to be six percent of all Korea.

T O P

Maintenance of the Infrastructure

What is obvious by looking at the maps of Korea and the Philippines is that the railroads run all across Korea whereas in the Philippines there is one line each in the Luzon and Panai islands. Taft, the first governor-general, restored the railroad construction of Luzon. In 1907, the railroad construction also began in Panay and Sebu but one in Sebu went bankrupt in 1937 and was discontinued.

The Philippines got motorized early on. Therefore highways were got ready but peripheral roads have been badly preserved, the continued length based on the area is only one half of Korea, and about equal based on the population. It has to be noted that transportation in general, including railroad and ship, were a lot behind than Korea and Taiwan.

Korea has gone through a magnificent electric development, centered around the Yaliu jiang river in the 1930's. It equated to TVA, one of the major projects under Roosevelt's New Deal policy in scale and created a basis for the industrial revolution of Korea. For details, please refer to: "The reasons for the post-war development of Korea" in this HP. However the electricity in Korea was mainly for the industrial use and the household use was ten years behind of Taiwan. In 1943 the prevalence of electricity for the household use was fifteen to sixteen percent, exceeding the percentage for the Philippines, which was nine percent. However the electricity infrastructure of Korea was partial to the northern part, and furthermore these equipment was destroyed due to the Korean war. The situation surrounding the use of electricity in both Philippines and Korea in the year of 1955 is close to equal.

T O P

Industrial Development

The Filipino industry was limited to agricultural products such as sugar, coconut oil, manila hemp and cigarettes; the two cement plants were the only modernized industry. Those cement plants produced only 170,000 tons together in 1939. On the other hand, Korea had four cement plants, producing 560,000 tons in 1936.

The sugar plants in the Philippines were limited to its primary production stages. On the contrary in Taiwan, they were successful in the integrated production of white sugar.

Since the United States took over the ownership of the Philippines, a lot of gold mines were discovered and had become an important industry of the Philippines. The country was also abundant in iron, bronze and chrome but they did not have enough technology to refine them to be final products.

Taiwan and Korea in the 1930's have experienced a rapid development of their industry, making the basis for the today's progress in both nations. Why was there no such industrial development in the Philippines? One has to do with the desire to invest among the Americans and the other has to do with the desire to invest among the Filipinos.

First of all, the problem on the American side has to do with localized politics of the Philippines after 1913 and the Jones act of 1916 which determined Filipino independence. Feeling insecure about the near future, many American investors withdrew from the Philippines by the late 1920's. The other factor might be that the common notion of contempt toward the natives among the white people that the natives cannot acquire high skill technology.

The problem on the Filipino side was lack of fund and strong will. Japan recovered the lack of fund by an extremely desire and wisdom and has established themselves to be a member of the leading nations after the Meiji Restoration. Who comes next is the Taiwanese capitalists. They developed steadily after the war benefiting from Japanese help.

T O P

Issues On Education

For this issue, please refer to the chapter of "On Korean development in the post-war era."in this HP.

T O P

Anti-government movement

In Korea, there was a large scale uprising called the 3.1 movement in 1919. The largest reason for this rebellion was their nationalism stimulated by Wilson's self-determination of people. The second largest factor was the holdup of the freedom of speech and assembly by the governors-general Terauchi and Hasegawa. The third factor was a failure of Governor-general Terauchi's policy over land. As a solution, Governor-general Saito eased the minds of the people by the two-time land reform. Two governors-general Ugaki and Minami brought a trend of unifying Japan and Korean by enlarging their income through agricultural improvement and industrial revolution. However, Minami's over-gone unification policy invited a repulsion by the Koreans.

In Taiwan there was a large scale uprising called the Wushe incident by Takasagos, uncivilized and ferocios tribe, in October of 1930. It became a case to sent airplanes to surpress in steep mountainous district.
The dead persons of the government side reached 52 including local tribe, and the dead persons of rebel tribe were more than 800. It is said that the roots of incident were heavy labors for construction work such as a road, a bridge, a waterway, and old grudge for the subjugation. However, by the later wise administration, Takasagos participated in the Japanese army in the Pacific Wars positively and contributed very much.
On the other hand in the Philippines, there was no large rebellion after the suppression of Aguinaldo's independence movement for a long time. But in May of 1935 there was a large scale uprising by the Sacudar party in the three states of Laguna, Burakan, and Cabite . It is said that Begunino Ramos, the leader of the Sacudar party, organized his party in protest to the American racism. 3500 participated in this riot, and 53 were killed.

T O P

Issues of uncivilized people

One of the important issues in the Philippines is the issue of the Moros. They are Muslims living in the Mindanao island and the Sulu islands and did not subjugate to the Spanish rule for a long time. It took the Spaniards till 1887 to almost repress them all. Even when the administration transferred to the United States, they were out of control till Governor Carpenter's diplomatic abilities worked well in 1913. The Filipino congress, reformed by the Jones act of 1916, allowed the delegation of two to the senate and nine to the house of representatives from the Moros. Through these public policies, they were able to keep their peace throughout the time the Americans ruled the Philippines. However, after the independence, the conflicts have risen again and again.

The Moros in the beginning of the American rule, were similar to the Takasagos of Taiwan, who were also uncivilized and fierce headhunters. Christians and Muslims are both monotheists, and has a lot of incompatibilities in spite of common origins, and there are conflicts between these two religions all over the world.

The Japanese subjugation of the Takasagos started with a five-years plan in 1909. Up until then, the administrative plan was to keep the Takasagos in the mountains and separate them from the Hans, reducing the chances of contact. Governor-general Sakuma who was appointed in 1906 was concerned of the fact that the headhunters were still wild in their areas, was determined to squash them, and led subjugation despite his old age (near seventy). He was injured from falling from the cliff in a battle of the Taloko valley, now a major tourist point in Taiwan.

What was wonderful about was the policy it took afterwards. They had policemen live among the Takasagos in the trackless mountains with the families, and had them teach reading, writing, cultivation of vegetables and other agricultural crops and tailoring. Some fell as the victims of headhunting. It brew a sense of togetherness by going through these hardships together. It is said that their common language was Japanese long after the war.

We do not hear about the organized anti-government movement by the Takasagos in Taiwan after 1930's Wushe incident. What was the difference between them and the Moros? First, it was the abundance Taiwan had. When life gets hard, ethnics become scapegoats and often leads to anti-government movement. Second, it must have been the devoted effort made by the Japanese policemen. It was great that Takasagos changed their customs and they have learned the virtues of civilization through the effort of the policemen.

T O P

Conclusion

What I feel strongly about when I compare the two colonial policies of the United States and Japan, is the noninterference policy of the United States and the interference policy of Japan. The United States was zealous about the administration of the Philippines in the beginning, but as Wilson got elected president, rapidly shifted the weight of the self-rule to the Filipinos, determined the future independence of 1946 in 1934, and let the Filipinos plan their own policies. There was no backing up in funding nor government. After the autonomous body was established, some of the tariffs such as commodity tax on coconut oil, taxation caused due to the fact that the Philippines were American colonies, were paid back to the Philippines.

Such policy making satisfied the Filipino self-esteem and there really was only a few anti-government movement. However on the other hand, it reduced the desire to invest in the Philippines among the Americans and being one of the reasons why the Filipino economy is stagnated, compared to Korea and Taiwan.

On the contrary, Japan planned to improve the living standards of the natives, and made the assimilation a goal. At the time of the annexation, Japan made a great financial assistance, and contributed to the maintenance of infrastructure, and industry. There were problems with human rights in the beginning of the annexation but these were improved after the 3.1 movement. Because Japan considered Korea as a part of the same country, the investment was stimulated and built the basis for today's development.

The United States made a contribution to the education of the Philippines but there was a problem with the idea of what education should be and being a part of the reason for the contemporary Filipino stagnation.

I can say in a word, the Philippines were brought up being indulged and were thrown out before grownup,
on the other hand, Japan is criticized in various ways because of too severe, but brought up Taiwan and Korea into a qualified country.



On the diplomatic negotiations between North Korea and Japan
The above negotiation with North Korea has begun. North Korea is strongly demanding the apology and compensations from Japan for the things that happened in the past. Our view on this matter is as follows.

Japan may have to be in a position on to follow the diplomatic consistency shown by the Japanese Prime Ministers such as Hosokawa and Murayama.

However, North Korea never was our enemy state. It is a state that gained independence from Japan. (Note: Ogihara argue "North Korea never existed untill 1948 and therefore could not declare war against Japan. It is a state to which independence was given not gained from Japan.) Therefore there is no need for us to pay them in terms of reparation.

Also, we cannot ignore the process of negotiations with South Korea. Based on the details of these negotiations, we may be able to respond to issues regarding the right to demand compensation, or economic corporation, such as unpaid salaries of the employees under the Japanese governance, but we are nolonger held responsible for any reparation. Such monetary aid to North Korea will bring about important effect on the Japanese negotiations with
South Korea.

At the time, South Korea stood on behalf of the entire Korean nation to negotiate on the compensation for the political annexation from Japan. In 1949, the amount that the Korean government submitted to the Allied forces
headquarter as the record of compensation demanded from Japan, in its dollar-yen rate of the day ($1=\15), was 2.1 billion dollars plus all the other things. On the other hand, how much Japan has left on the Korea soil,
although there never is a clear figure due to the existence of many different records, was 4.7 billion dollars, even after subtracting military property and personal assets, according to "The resources on foreign compensation" submitted by the Research Committee of Foreign Estate. Also, according to the research done by the Allied Forces Control Bureau of Personal Assets, subtracting the military property, there was 3 billion in North and 2.3 billion in South, altogether, 5.3 billion dollars. Therefore, there was more than enough compensation just by leaving all the Japanese assets in Korea.

When India gained its independence from Britain, all the personal assets that British individuals had in India, was returned to them. From that example, Japan claimed that the personal assets amounting to 600 to 800 million dollars had belonged to Japan. On the other hand, in 1961, when South Korea claimed as their concrete demanding rights, including stocks, currencies and unpaid salaries to the employees of the Japanese government,
the total amounted came to be 400 million dollars, and 360 million within it were compensated to those employees. Japanese personal assets that were forced to give up were more than enough reparation.

From the above reasons, Japan did not feel any need to pay for any damages in Korea at all. Thus, Japan paid money under the name of economic assistance, based on what was decided in the Treaty on Basic Relations
between Japan and The repubric of Korea. Also Korea demanded quite a large sum of dollars as part of their reparation rights, but they have only paid 16 million dollars altogether to their individuals.
In short, even when Korea claims personal damages and etc, it never surpasses the few percent of the whole. They should compare the amount to how much Japan has left in Korea.

To our surprise, in comparison with Germany, there is a voice that Japan should compensate for the individuals. After the treaty was signed, how much the Korean government paid for those individuals whose family members
had fallen in World War II (serving as Japanese soldiers despite the fact they were Koreans) was only 300,000 won per person (US $530) but this equates to the amount paid by the Korean government to Korean soldiers who died in the Korean and Vietnam wars. If the amount several times than this was paid by Japanese goverment, what would have happen to the standpoint of the Korean government? What would the families of those fallen solders who died in the Korean and Vietnam wars have thought? All things considered, we cannot
lightly agree to the opinion of: "Personal reparations, not national compensation."

We should emphasize here that Korea is not a winner of World War II, but a state that gained independence from Japan. Other Western states, whose positions are similiar to that of Japan, have never apologized nor compensated to their former colonies, moreover they have received reparations for their personal assets
left on the soils of former colonies. Also German reparations for individuals are just for the vicitims of Holocaust, and negotiation for compensations for damages done during World War II has just begun.

Also when the negotiation went awry with the famous comment of: "Japan did something good, too" made by Kubota in 1953, the overwhelming Japanese public supported him. Even the leftist Asahi Shimbun published an article titled: "Korea has said too much." Magazine "Sekai" have not picked up this issue. Even the Diet has unanimously passed a resolution asking the Korean government to turn down the anti-Japan statement. I personally believe that there is no need to apologize to Korea, north or south alike. What sort of damages has there been, concretely, by Japan governing Korea?

There is an argument that Japan pillaged the land properties in Korea. When Japan annexed Korea, the dispute between the Korean government and the Korean people over the posession of what used to be publicly-owned land had been going on．Japan adopted the claim of the Korean government and the ownership returned to the government. Later on, a portion of the land was sold to Japanese. The Korean textbooks preach that Japan debauched 40% of the arable land, but in reality, it was only 3 to 4%, which is one digit less.

It is said that Japan forcefully changed their surnames．But the Korean custom of those with same surnames unable to marry, was not altered at this time based on the Japanese law. (Note: In Korea, it is traditionally taboo
to perform an intermarriage beteen the same family lines having inheritical same surname, and derived from the same home-land.) There is no way to check whether people with different surnames married or not if the surname was erased in the registration and they altered their surnames. Japan ordered to make the familie's name in addition to the surname, and these namems could be same or another. The fact that Japan offered an alternative to Korean names, but there was no duress, is evident by the fact that there were several Korean governors who kept their last names. How can there be duress when in fact the governors themselves did not change their last names?

One talks of brutality in the 3.1 incident, but how would one explain the fact that some of the leaders in this incident have turned into a group of pro-Japan Koreans? We will touch these issues soon



The Reasons for post-war development
in South Korea:
Contents
1. President Park Chung Hee and economic development of South Korea
2.The Condition of the time when Ukaki was appointed as governor-general of Korea.
3.Agricultural Promotion led by Ukaki
4. Korean Industrial Revolution
5. On Education
6. Training of Agricultural Leaders
7. Conclusion

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1. President Park Chung Hee and economic development of South Korea

Although it is hard to believe now, when Park Chung Hee took the helm of South Korea in 1961, its standard of living was lower than that of North Korea and the Philippines. The transition of GNP per person is shown in the table 1. It is after 1965 that we see economic development in South Korea. It is evident that the growth of South Korea is a result by which Korean made an effort strenuously.

Table 1 The transition of GNP per person Unit $
　 1958 1965 1970 1975 1980
Japan 320 760 1920 4450 9020
South Korea 121 120 250 560 1450
North Korea 　 190 330 450 　
Philippin 198 150 210 380 710
　 1965 was a year when South Korea entered into the war in Vietnam, and also the year of signing the treaty with Japan. Because of the emergent demand from Vietnam, The South Korean economy had progressed greatly.
However, why did not the Filipino economy show similar progress? The Philippines were under the governance of the United States, and was closer to Vietnam than South Korea. The emergency demand to Philippine must be larger than that to South Korea. However the Philippines was not able to catch up with the time. The reason was in the difference of potential ability (ex, undeveloped industry, incomplete infrastructure　and defect of educations) between the Philippines and South Korea at that time, but also the difference of colonial policy between Japan and the United States. I shall contend these reasons at following thesis.

At the same year of participation in the Vietnam war, South Korea signed the treaty with Japan. Not only the capital of compensation flowed into the country, but the private capital also flowed into South Korea suddenly. In those days Japanese economy was blooming, and the wage for labor was increasing rapidly. It is natural the Japanese enterprises branched in South Korea, because of proximity, prevalence of education, familiarity with the Japanese language, and lower cost of labor. Exactly by inflow of capitals and wisdom, the economy of South Korea progressed rapidly.

Then stagnation of agriculture became significant. In 1970, President Park started promotion movement of farm village named "Semaul Movement,"it meant new farm movement. Its motto was self-standing, diligence and corporation. Under this motto, road repairing, improvement of roof and construction of warehouses have gone ahead actively by the group work of farmers. The movement spread into the cities, and combined with movement of higher productivity, it contributed to the progress of industry. Indeed the development of South Korea is a result by which the South Koreans made an effort desperately.
But this success of President Park was very similar to following governor-general Ukaki's governance.

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2.The Condition of the time when Ukaki was appointed as governor-general of Korea.

When Kazushige Ukaki was appointed as the governor-general of Korea in June of 1931, it was known to be one of the worst eras of worldwide agricultural depression. The prices of agricultural products have dropped drastically. Rice, which was representative agricultural commodity, has dropped its price down to one-third of the price set in 1919. It translates to the income of the rice farmers decreased down to one-third. In order to maintain rice fields, there are necessary expenses other than food such as clothing, agricultural tools, fertilizer and ceremonial occasions. If a farming house was to base their loan on the income from a subsequent year, it was obvious that these farmers would run into debt. The 1930's was an era when harmful effects of free economy have manifested.

To devise a countermeasure, higher tariff was imposed worldwide to prevent imports. The United States and Australia prohibitted immigration from Asia. Planned economy became the order of the day in Germany and Italy as Hitler and Mussolini gained power.

In Northeastern Japan, not only the farmers but the city officials were also hard hit by this depression; there often was none or late delivery of their salaries. Farmers have often sold rice for their own use to the market that caused further price dropping. Their daughters were sold to prostitution as they ran out of rice. In September of the same year, Manchurian Incident was happened by Japan; one of the reasons was that there was a huge demand to relocate the Japanese farmers, as a measurement to the agricultural depression

Farmers in Korea also had to sell their own rice and ate millet, because of this depression. Japanese Agriculture and Forestry Department has stated in condemnation: "Unlimited Korean rice being exported to Japan has caused the price of rice to decrease" and demanded to suspend the shipping of rice. However, Korea had nothing else to export, therefore the only way to maintain their living standards was to send expensive rice out to Japan. With the support of the Japanese Army, Korean farmers managed to export their rice to Japan freely.

At the same time, American manufactures of sugar and cooking oil have repulsed against the unlimited import of sugar and palm oil from the Philippines. Labor unions in the United States, who felt threatened by the Filipino laborers immigrating to the mainland US, have also expressed their feeling and it was decided that the Philippines were to gain independence. It was a de facto cut-off. One may wonder, compared to Japan, which policy was more concerned of its people..

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3.Agricultural Promotion led by Ukaki

As soon as Ukaki was appointed, he began his inspection tour, and started his agricultural promotion plan. It started slightly earlier than the Japanese counterpart. What he claimed in this movement was the mindset of the people. Also Enkichi Yamazaki, who was invited by Ukaki to direct the movement had principles of "Spirit of Service, Spirit of Corporation, Spirit of Self Help." The difference from the Semaul movement is Service has been replaced by Diligence.

The difference between this movement in Korea and that of Japan was that the focus of guidance was at personal level. The government appointed the villages in which suitable leaders lived as the leading villages, and guided each individual to keep an account book . Nearly everybody was illiterate at the time, thus the village officials who were able to read and write, kept these account books instead. They taught these villagers how to read, write and keep simple account books, and also the basic principles of management such as: "Measure what comes in and reduce what is going out." It was an utter invasion of privacy, however this was a necessary step to help the almost bankrupted farmers or private companies, however small it might have been.

Adding to this movement, simple schooling system has started in 1934. It aimed to teach those young men who could not afford to go to school, how to read, write and do arithmetic. These schools were scheduled parallel to normal schools; the students were free to come whenever their work was slow and the teachers who taught normal schools also taught these young men who were willing to further their education

The biggest problem facing Korean farmers at the time was short labor hours. They were demanded to work as much as those farmers in Japan, starting with weeding, fertilizing crops, and making fertilizers. For the winter time, production of barley, lotus, rape, were encouraged as well as live stock industry and folk pieces. In order for this movement to be thorough, leagues of young men and women were actively organized. What we have to pay attention here is that these organizations had been downplayed before, because they were believed to become hot-bed of anti-Japan movement, however at this time they were held actively. In the meetings for these leagues, formal discussion of local policies is important but informal speeches and relations among the members are more important. And government cannot overlook them. If the government of the time was dubious or suspicious of such anti-Japan sentiment in these forums, such free and democratic policy must not have been endowed.

Korean women did not work traditionally outdoors, that was one reason of Korean poor. The government has led them to work in their farm between housework and at the same time, these women acquired such skills as bookkeeping, doing away with superstition, cutting down unnecessary expenditure, keeping a side business, in order to benefit their living conditions. As a result, rice production rate calculated based on the area, which was fifty to sixty percent of Japanese production rate, has increased drastically and livestock has also shown remarkable growth; Korean agricultural economy has recuperated

This agricultural promotion movement has continued on even after Ukaki retired and Minami took over the governor-general position. It has changed its character over the years, and it has ceased as a movement when it was incorporated into the Total National Movement in 1941.

A journalist by name of Sawaichiro Kamata, who assisted Ukaki as his brain, had been called back to Korea in the post-war era for the Semaul movement

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4. Korean Industrial Revolution

What deserves special attention in pre-war Korea was the development of electricity.
In the early 1920's, Yutaka Kubota, who made a significant and worldwide contribution to the post-war water-power development as the president of Nippon Koei, visited Korea and bought a mass amount of maps. He has found, from these maps, that there could be a great deal of electricity by turning the direction of the water opposite to drop it on the Sea of Japan. It had a plan of producing 100,000 kW, in an era when Kanidera, the biggest power plant in Japan, produced maximum 45,000 kW.

Even if this was a great plan for new power plant, there would be no use if there is no one to use electricity. Kubota, along with his partner Kazuo Morita, convinced Jun Noguchi, who was a friend to Morita. Noguchi was president to Nippon Chisso, a manufacturer of chemical fertilizer. In this period, chemical fertilizer was the biggest consumer of electricity. With their passion,First Power Plant has started in 1929 at Bujeon Gang(赴戦江）; it produced 130,000 kW. At the same time, a large chemical plant was constructed in Hyeungnam.

The development of Yaru Chiang (鴨緑江) put together by Kubota and Noguchi, and a huge chemical industry had taken off on own process. To show how large of a project this was, we would like to present a table comparing it to the major Japanese power plants, and Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a major project for Roosevelt's New Deal.

This electricity development had triggered the Korean Industrial Revolution.

Table 2 ; Compare Large Power Plant in Korea with those of Japan and TVA
Large Power Plant in Korea Large Power Plant in Japan
Completed at 1945 Completed at 1945
Bujeon Gang No1 130MW Japan Railway Senjuu 120MW
Jangjin Gang No1 144MW Tokou El. Shinano 165MW
Jangjin Gang No2 112MW Chubu El Okuhara 87MW
Heocheon Gang No1 145MW Kansai El Kurobe No3　81MW
Supung 700MW 　
Constructing Post WW2
Unbong(雲峰) 500MW Sakuma 350MW
Euiju（義州) 200MW Kurobe 335MW
　 Shintakase 1280MW
　 Tanokura 380MW
Korea TVA in USA
Generated Power per Year Generated Power per Year
Completed at 1945 11,400 million KWH Water Power 12,200 million KWH
Constructing 7,000 million KWH Thermal Power 4.300 million KWH
　 Military Factory 1.400 million KWH
　 American Aluminium 1.800 million KWH
Along with the development of electricity, the mining industry was another key factor to this industrial growth in Korea.

Governor Ukaki has noticed that there were many gold accessories in traditional Korean art and encouraged gold mining with subsidy. As a result, what were once forsaken gold mines have revived, and as subsidiaries, other mines were also discovered and led to the revival of those mines. It was soon discovered that Korea was not only rich in minerals, but also people started to recognize Korea as a "specimen room" of the minerals.

As the development of those minerals continued, infrastructure (i.e. roads and electricity) were acquired. Maturity of other technologies necessary in the mining industry, such as ore dressing and refinement, has accelerated, along with manufacturing of cement, machines and services to all these different products.

Manchurian Incident, and establishment of Manchuria in 1931, has brought an economic effect similar to the one that the Vietnam war has brought to Korea in the 1960's. Korean high school history textbooks condemn the industrial development of this time as: "The Japanese Empire has planned a major invasion of the Chinese Continent, therefore turned the Korean peninsula into a huge logistics base. In order to carry on this project, power plants and military factories were constructed, mines were developed, heavy industry was introduced to Korea. However all this was a means to continue on with the war for the Japanese Empire, and aimed to enslave and subjugate the economy of the Korean peninsula under the colonial economic system."

However the first industries that have risen were fertilizer industry, and cement industry, not military factories. Also it should be noted here that because of the development in mechanical and chemical industries, Korea was later able to utilize their technologies in the time of the Vietnam war in the 1960's.

As seen in the Table 3, increase in agricultural productivity and drastic development in industry which began in the Ukaki era, has caused a remarkable social change. Robberies decreased, the rate of children attending school has increased; all these conditions reflect the improvement in living standard, and the increase of amount in electricity consumption is the driving force in the contemporary development of Korea.

Table 3 The Development of Korea
　 unit 1927 1932 1937 1942
Agriculturer Product milion Yen 86 86 122 　
Industrial Product milion Yen 31 35 87 　
GNP per Person Yen 89.9 78.1 110.7 　
Generated Power Million KWH 　 　 2,698 (4,860)
Percentage of School attendance %
　 17.8
　 18.2
　 30.7
　 49.6
　
Robber Case 1771 1261 727 394
Notes: The data in ( ) is the data of 1941

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5. On Education

When in discussing a nation's economic development, one cannot avoid the issues in education. One fact that intrigues us is that among the non-white ex-colonies, only Korea and Taiwan have become members of the advanced nations today. Needless to mention, they were both governed by Japan in the pre-war period. There may be those who point out that Hong Kong and Singapore are quite advanced, but they are city-states and do not have rural areas, which are usually weak in terms of development, therefore they cannot be discussed at the same level as Taiwan and Korea.

The Philippines, ex-American colony, has remained as an developing nation. The United States started to govern the Philippines in 1898, which is three years after Japan started its governing Taiwan, 12 years before its governing of Korea. It is an interesting question as to how these two nations were the only nations that showed such significant growth, but Philippine who were student of USA could not grow. We would like to compare the differences in policies of Japan and the United States from the educational standpoint. And when we consider the policy of Japan today, it presents very important information.

As the United States governed the Philippines, it recognized education as the mightiest weapon, and began offering free primary education by bringing 700 teachers and a mass amount of textbooks. Lieutenant-Governor has traditionally been appointed as Chief of Education, and encouraged education on the population of the Philippines. As a result, prevalence of the primary education in the Philippines was above that of Korea in the mid-1930's. We had to wait till the last days of the war to see the Korean rate of children attending school surpassing that of the Philippines.

In higher education (college and university), the start of state-run the University of the Philippines was around the time of annexation of Korea. Even before the commencement of the University of the Philippines, Christian schools, such as St. Thomas, have educated students outnumbering the University of the Philippines. As of 1937, in every one million Filipino people, there were 1,900 students. Although it was far from reaching the rate in Japan, the rate of higher education in the Philippines outnumbered that of Korea by one digit (at the same time Koreans had only 130 school students every one million people). There was a large amount of Korean young students who studied in Japan, however even when counting those students, it was far less than that of the Philippines

On the education of the Philippines, the report submitted during the time of Japanese occupation of the Philippines by the Committee of the Research of the Philippines, states that on primary education: "The rate of children attending school shortly before the Great East Asian War has reached 84.7% (In comparison, the same rate in Korea is 43%). However the school children range from age five to age eighteen, and the rate plummets only to about 20%. In 1940, 1% of the first grade pupils were already fourteen years of age.

Weakness of staff is also a problem; majority of them have only completed 12th grade, or dropped out of high school." It also points out how many pupils of primary schools were drop-outs.

Regarding secondary education: "66% of the students are wishing to advance onto higher level of school to train whitecollors." As an example of vocational education raised here is: "Majority of the students at the Philippines Technical School are major in auto repairing, radio repairing, and machine operating. They have not stepped out of the boundaries of training factory workers."

On higher education: "One of the failures that needs to be mentioned is that it stimulated unhealthy admiration toward white collar profession. It is regretful that technical education was ignored in lieu of so-called liberal arts, such as law, literature and religion."

As seen from Japan, the report points out that technical education has been treated lightly, especially the logical aspect that would make the basis for the future, has been neglected.

However, I believe that the root of the problems in the contemporary Philippines, yet economically struggling, is within the idea of what an education in the Philippines ought to be. This equates to the discussion of the difference between American education and pre-war Japanese education, and one can link the discussion to the problems manifesting in the contemporary Japan.

The first point is private versus public. Japanese prioritize the public, whereas Americans prioritize the private. Korea, coming from their long Confucian tradition, has valued also the notion of private before Japanese governance.

The second point is the idea of self-correction; Japanese educators in their colonies have inserted the spirit of independence. I believe this has worked as a dynamite to the success seen in post-war Taiwan and Korea. I feel the lack of such self-sustaining idea in the developing nations

The third point is the spirit of diligence. Cleaning up the school is the duty of school children since elementary school in Japan. Both children of wealthy families and poor families learned to work together. Now at factories in Japan, both college graduates and factory workers have joined together to seek the solution for all the problems. Yampan , the ruling class of Korea, has extremely belittled labor, and they have been said to have their servants light cigarettes for them. These yampan were the very cause of this stagnation seen in modern Korea before Japanese governance. Even in Europe and America, officers and soldiers ate separately, white collar professionals and factory workers were separated greatly. This tradition was heavily inherited to the Philippines, and it became ordinary that technical workers were neglected.

The spirits of Japanese education was written in Kyouiku Chokugo, the Message of Meiji Emperor. We must review it.

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6. Training of Agricultural Leaders

One cannot overlook the importance of the Japanization movement of the Koreans in the pre-war time about contribution to progress of Korea. In this process, night schools opened to offer pertinent courses for young men, farmers were trained to become agricultural leaders, and training for factory workers was offered as well. Statistics on formal education does not include such proper and important training for working individuals. I will discuss the training of agricultural leaders within the Japanization.

Several years prior to the beginning of this agricultural reformation started in the early 1930's, schools began to offer courses for elementary school graduates. They were working on the means to cultivate farms in a better way along with the teachers. The lands were loaned from their parents. They were successful to gain twice the amount of the surrounding farmers. Parents, who first ridiculed this educational activity, graduated started to recognize its success, and these young men had grown into agricultural leaders. This instruction of the graduates has begun in 1927 in Gyeonggi Do, and in 1935, 13,000 graduates have been subjected to this training at 60% of normal school. It lasted for three to five years per individual.

To organize this agricultural training, the Center for Agricultural Training was established in 1933 in Gyeonggi Do. With the start of this center, similar training sites for young men and women have opened in every county. The management of each training center was left up to the counties, so that their names and the subjects that were taught differ from center to center. Many of them separated their courses into a month-long short term course and a long-term course which lasted for a year. For long-term courses, the students lived in the dorms to train together. Many centers have put training for elementary school graduates as prerequisite. This does not mean, however, that training for elementary school graduates has ceased, but it increased the focus of agricultural internship and spiritual training. As far as the latter is concerned, it is now condemned that it increased the subordination to Japan among the Korean people. However I contend that spirits of corporation and self-assisting have continued onto the Semaul movement.
I cannot think of the post-war success in Japan and Korea without these spiritual emphases.

Interchange with Japan has begun in 1938. 50 people were sent to the youth center in Iwate, Japan, and by June of 1944, 3000 people, including 300 young women, were sent to training centers and farming houses in Japan. It has covered to fill in for the scarcity of personnel in Japan but it also functioned to give them hands-on experience with different farming technologies. I believe that there were many things to be learned, although the learned skills did not reflect on the economic development right away.

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7. Conclusion

The reasons for Korean success as seen today obviously have roots in their effort to surpass Japan. However the origin of such success, initiated by President Park, cannot be discussed without making a note on policies made by General Ukaki. The second half of the twentieth century was an era when the incomes showed the widest gap in the human history. There is a huge difference between those nations who caught up with the time, and those who did not. South Korea, while many other nations have suffered in their poverty, has managed to catch up. I think that we Japanese are able to say that we have done some great things in the past, especially the development of Korea as seen today.

The basic premise of economic development lies in wealth and intelligence. Developing, or undeveloped nations have hard time to deliver these goods on their own. In order to actively utilize such goods and service, a nation is required to use their own latent ability, which needs to have grown in the time prior to this. In that respect, Korea was successful in terms of both delivering and making uses of those resources, whereas the Philippines failed. "Rome was not built in one day" as the old saying suggests, Ukaki's policy did not suffice at the time, but the leaders who were trained and educated this time, later became the central power in the Semaul movement in time of President Park. I also believe the difference between the industrialization and infrastructure led to success in Korea and failure in the Philippines.

During the second oil shock, I headed the committee of energy conservation for my company. At the time I painfully realized the need for carrying out the mission at any cost: At the time I painfully realized the need to have the spirit that we can get nothing without efforts, for carrying out the mission. Japan inserted the spiritual power necessary to carry out such a hard task to Korean. Then Korean was able to win the contemporary development through this spirit and nationalism to surpass Japan. However by excess nationalism is a negative factor when obtaining international fund and introducing knowledge. I feel recent recession of growth in Korea come from excess nationalism of anti-Japan.

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On the diplomatic negotiations between North Korea and Japan
The above negotiation with North Korea has begun. North Korea is strongly demanding the apology and compensations from Japan for the things that happened in the past. Our view on this matter is as follows.

Japan may have to be in a position on to follow the diplomatic consistency shown by the Japanese Prime Ministers such as Hosokawa and Murayama.

However, North Korea never was our enemy state. It is a state that gained independence from Japan. (Note: Ogihara argue "North Korea never existed untill 1948 and therefore could not declare war against Japan. It is a state to which independence was given not gained from Japan.) Therefore there is no need for us to pay them in terms of reparation.

Also, we cannot ignore the process of negotiations with South Korea. Based on the details of these negotiations, we may be able to respond to issues regarding the right to demand compensation, or economic corporation, such as unpaid salaries of the employees under the Japanese governance, but we are nolonger held responsible for any reparation. Such monetary aid to North Korea will bring about important effect on the Japanese negotiations with
South Korea.

At the time, South Korea stood on behalf of the entire Korean nation to negotiate on the compensation for the political annexation from Japan. In 1949, the amount that the Korean government submitted to the Allied forces
headquarter as the record of compensation demanded from Japan, in its dollar-yen rate of the day ($1=\15), was 2.1 billion dollars plus all the other things. On the other hand, how much Japan has left on the Korea soil,
although there never is a clear figure due to the existence of many different records, was 4.7 billion dollars, even after subtracting military property and personal assets, according to "The resources on foreign compensation" submitted by the Research Committee of Foreign Estate. Also, according to the research done by the Allied Forces Control Bureau of Personal Assets, subtracting the military property, there was 3 billion in North and 2.3 billion in South, altogether, 5.3 billion dollars. Therefore, there was more than enough compensation just by leaving all the Japanese assets in Korea.

When India gained its independence from Britain, all the personal assets that British individuals had in India, was returned to them. From that example, Japan claimed that the personal assets amounting to 600 to 800 million dollars had belonged to Japan. On the other hand, in 1961, when South Korea claimed as their concrete demanding rights, including stocks, currencies and unpaid salaries to the employees of the Japanese government,
the total amounted came to be 400 million dollars, and 360 million within it were compensated to those employees. Japanese personal assets that were forced to give up were more than enough reparation.

From the above reasons, Japan did not feel any need to pay for any damages in Korea at all. Thus, Japan paid money under the name of economic assistance, based on what was decided in the Treaty on Basic Relations
between Japan and The repubric of Korea. Also Korea demanded quite a large sum of dollars as part of their reparation rights, but they have only paid 16 million dollars altogether to their individuals.
In short, even when Korea claims personal damages and etc, it never surpasses the few percent of the whole. They should compare the amount to how much Japan has left in Korea.

To our surprise, in comparison with Germany, there is a voice that Japan should compensate for the individuals. After the treaty was signed, how much the Korean government paid for those individuals whose family members
had fallen in World War II (serving as Japanese soldiers despite the fact they were Koreans) was only 300,000 won per person (US $530) but this equates to the amount paid by the Korean government to Korean soldiers who died in the Korean and Vietnam wars. If the amount several times than this was paid by Japanese goverment, what would have happen to the standpoint of the Korean government? What would the families of those fallen solders who died in the Korean and Vietnam wars have thought? All things considered, we cannot
lightly agree to the opinion of: "Personal reparations, not national compensation."

We should emphasize here that Korea is not a winner of World War II, but a state that gained independence from Japan. Other Western states, whose positions are similiar to that of Japan, have never apologized nor compensated to their former colonies, moreover they have received reparations for their personal assets
left on the soils of former colonies. Also German reparations for individuals are just for the vicitims of Holocaust, and negotiation for compensations for damages done during World War II has just begun.

Also when the negotiation went awry with the famous comment of: "Japan did something good, too" made by Kubota in 1953, the overwhelming Japanese public supported him. Even the leftist Asahi Shimbun published an article titled: "Korea has said too much." Magazine "Sekai" have not picked up this issue. Even the Diet has unanimously passed a resolution asking the Korean government to turn down the anti-Japan statement. I personally believe that there is no need to apologize to Korea, north or south alike. What sort of damages has there been, concretely, by Japan governing Korea?

There is an argument that Japan pillaged the land properties in Korea. When Japan annexed Korea, the dispute between the Korean government and the Korean people over the posession of what used to be publicly-owned land had been going on．Japan adopted the claim of the Korean government and the ownership returned to the government. Later on, a portion of the land was sold to Japanese. The Korean textbooks preach that Japan debauched 40% of the arable land, but in reality, it was only 3 to 4%, which is one digit less.

It is said that Japan forcefully changed their surnames．But the Korean custom of those with same surnames unable to marry, was not altered at this time based on the Japanese law. (Note: In Korea, it is traditionally taboo
to perform an intermarriage beteen the same family lines having inheritical same surname, and derived from the same home-land.) There is no way to check whether people with different surnames married or not if the surname was erased in the registration and they altered their surnames. Japan ordered to make the familie's name in addition to the surname, and these namems could be same or another. The fact that Japan offered an alternative to Korean names, but there was no duress, is evident by the fact that there were several Korean governors who kept their last names. How can there be duress when in fact the governors themselves did not change their last names?

One talks of brutality in the 3.1 incident, but how would one explain the fact that some of the leaders in this incident have turned into a group of pro-Japan Koreans? We will touch these issues soon